Terpenes

Terpenes are aromatic compounds found in many plants, including cannabis^48,49. They are bioactive, which means they have observable effects on the body.

“These aromatic compounds create the characteristic and scent of many plants, such as cannabis, pine, and lavender, as well as fresh orange peel. The fragrance of most plants is due to a combination of terpenes. In nature, these terpenes protect animals from grazing or infectious germs.”⁴⁸

Terpenes are often isolated and used to add scent to products such as soap, shampoo, lotion, perfume — and even food (natural beverage flavoring, etc…). They play a key role in the aromatherapy industry, just as they do in the cannabis industry.

Current research on the entourage effect supports the theory that terpenes may alter how phytocannabinoids are processed and used throughout the body. Similar research has also demonstrated that terpenes offer unique benefits that cause each strain of cannabis to have different medicinal properties⁴⁸.

While there is an array of different terpenes found throughout nature, only a select few have been identified and researched. Many of the terpenes are in critical need of more research to better understand their role in altering/enhancing the effects of cannabis.

It is also worth noting the terpene profile and concentrations of cannabis will vary depending on how it was processed — just as the cannabinoid ratios will vary depending on how the cannabis was processed, as well^48,1.

Additionally, some cannabis products contain added terpenes^98,99. These are either terpenes that have been “added back” to make up for any that were lost during the extraction process, or terpenes that have been added to enhance the flavor or therapeutic effects of the products.

Common terpenes found in cannabis include⁵⁰:

• Alpha-Bisabolol (α-Bisabolol)
• Beta-Bisabolol (β-Bisabolol)
• Borneol
• Beta-Caryophyllene (β-Caryophyllene)
• Delta-3-Carene (∆-3-Carene)
• Eucalyptol
• Geraniol
• Gamma-Linolenic Acid (γ-Linolenic Acid)
• Humulene (α-Humulene)
• Limonene
• Linalool
• Myrcene
• Trans-nerolidol
• Alpha-Pinene (α-Pinene)
• Beta-Pinene (β-Pinene)
• Ocimene
• Alpha-Terpinene (α-Terpinene)
• Beta-Terpinene (β-Terpinene)
• Gamma-Terpinene (γ-Terpinene)
• Terpineol
• Valencene

Alpha-Bisabolol (α-Bisabolol)

Found in fats and oils (namely German chamomile oil), α-Bisabolol has a “weak, tangy, fresh and clean, citrus, floral, sweet aroma with a peppery note”^34,50.

Benefits associated with α-Bisabolol³⁴:

• Analgesic
• Anti-aging
• Antibacterial
• Anticancer
• Anti-inflammatory
• Ant-irritant
• Antimicrobial

Beta-Bisabolol (β-Bisabolol)

Found in fats and oils (namely cotton oil), β-Bisabolol has a “medium strength citrus, floral, tangy, lemon, fresh, sweet, herbaceous aroma”³⁴. This terpene displays anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antifungal, and antimutagenic properties.

Benefits associated with β-Bisabolol³⁴:

• Antifungal
• Antimicrobial
• Antimutagenic (preventing DNA mutation)

Borneol

“Found in several species of Heterotheca, Artemisia, Callicarpa, Dipterocarpaceae, Blumea balsamifera and Kaempferia galanga (all plants, trees, or shrubs),”⁵⁰ Borneol is a terpene widely (and historically) used throughout Chinese medicine³⁴.

“In Chinese medicine, herbs containing borneol are recommended for overfatigue and stress. Borneol is considered a ‘calming sedative.’ It is directed for fatigue, recovery from illness, and stress. It is found in small quantities in many essential oils”³⁴.

Benefits associated with Borneol^34,51:

• Anxiolytic (anti-anxiety)
• Anticoagulant (blood thinners; reduces blood clotting⁵²)
• Sedative and sleep-promoting

Beta-Caryophyllene (β-Caryophyllene)

Found in aromatic oils (namely rosemary and clove oil) and plants including hops, cloves, black pepper, oregano, cinnamon, and basil, Beta-Caryophyllene (β-Caryophyllene) ^50,48.

“β-Caryophyllene has a sweet, woody, and dry clove odor and tastes pepper-spicy with camphor and astringent citrus backgrounds.”³⁴ This terpene is widely used throughout the tobacco industry to enhance the flavor of tobacco products, as well.

Benefits associated with β-Caryophyllene^34,48,68:

• Topical analgesic (effective for reducing pain via lotions and salves)
• Anticancer
• Antidepressant
• Anxiolytic (anti-anxiety)
• Anti-inflammatory
• Alcohol-craving reduction

Delta-3-Carene (∆-3-Carene)

Found in rosemary, as well as pine and cypress resin, Delta-3-Carene (∆-3-Carene) is used to dry excess bodily fluids in aromatherapy³⁴. It is thought these same properties are responsible for causing dry mouth or dry eyes, which are very common side effects described by cannabis users.

Benefits associated with ∆-3-Carene^34,53,54:

• Decreased production of bodily fluids (tears, mucus, sweat, menstrual flow, etc…)
• Anti-inflammatory
• Improved memory and cognition
• Accelerated bone repair and growth

Eucalyptol

As its name implies, eucalyptol has the “camphor-minty odor of eucalyptus”³⁴. Eucalyptol is most commonly found in the eucalyptus tree, as well as rosemary, sage, sweet basil, bay leaves, tea trees, and cardamom⁵⁰. This terpene is also the main ingredient in eucalyptus oil.

Benefits associated with Eucalyptol^34,55:

• Pro-circulatory (increases circulation)
• Topical anti-inflammatory
• Antioxidant

Geraniol

Found in a variety of fruits, vegetables, and essential oils⁵⁶, geraniol has a “medium strength, floral, sweet, rosey, fruity odor with citrus to citronella-like odor nuances. Its flavor is floral, rosy, waxy, and perfumey with a peach-like nuance.”³⁴

Benefits associated with Geraniol^34,56,76:

• Anticancer, anti-tumor
• Anti-fungal
• Anti-inflammatory
• Antimicrobial
• Antioxidant
• Antiviral
• Neuroprotective

“Geraniol has also been shown to sensitize tumor cells to commonly used chemotherapies and represents a promising cancer chemopreventive agent. Due to its anticancer effects, geraniol has been found to be effective against a broad range of cancers including breast, lung, colon, prostate, pancreatic, skin, liver, kidney and oral cancers.”⁵⁶

Gamma-Linolenic Acid (γ-Linolenic Acid, GLA)

“This omega 6 fatty acid is primarily found in the seed oils of evening primrose, black currant, borage, and fungal oils. This substance can be found in Spirulina (blue-green algae) and hempseed.”⁵⁰ It has a “slight vegetable oil aroma.”³⁴

Benefits associated with γ-Linolenic Acid^34,50,57:

• “Slightly anti-inflammatory”³⁴
• Effective topical treatment for systemic skin conditions, such as eczema, psoriasis, and sclerosis
• Antiproliferative⁵⁸ (inhibits cell growth, particularly of cells around malignant growths and tumors⁵⁹)

“Gamma linolenic acid (GLA) is used for conditions that affect the skin including systemic sclerosis, psoriasis, and eczema. It is also used for rheumatoid arthritis (RA), polyps in the mouth, high cholesterol and other blood fats, heart disease, metabolic syndrome (Syndrome-X), diabetic nerve pain, attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), depression, depression after childbirth, chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS), and hay fever (allergic rhinitis). Some people use it to prevent cancer and to help breast cancer patients respond faster to treatment with the drug tamoxifen.”⁶⁰

Humulene (α-Humulene)

Formerly known as “alpha-caryophyllene (α-caryophyllene),” humulene (α-humulene) has a “bitter, medium woody, and hoppy” aroma³⁴. It is commonly found in the hops of Humulus lupulus, sage, and ginseng⁶¹.

Benefits associated with Humulene (α-Humulene)³⁴

• Antibacterial
• Anticancer, anti-tumor
• Antifungal
• Anti-inflammatory
• Appetite suppression^101,102,62

“Τhere’s more to humulene than its herbaceous charm. This terpene is found in a wide variety of plants and has been used for centuries in holistic Eastern medicinal practices.”⁶²

Limonene

Found in citrus peels and the rinds of other tropical fruits, limonene is the “second, third or fourth most prevalent terpene in cannabis resins. It is a precursor to the synthesis of other cannabinoids.”³⁴

Benefits associated with Limonene^34,50,63:

• Antibacterial
• Anticancer, anti-tumor, chemo-preventive (chemo-preventive means this terpene prevents cancer from developing⁶⁴)
• Anti-depressant, mood-boosting, energizing
• Antifungal
• Affects cell permeability, allowing THC to reach brain cells and increase the absorption of other terpenes
• Increases blood pressure

“Limonene has been used clinically to dissolve gallstones, improve mood, and relieve heartburn and gastrointestinal reflux. Limonene has been shown to destroy breast-cancer cells in lab experiments, and its powerful antimicrobial action can kill pathogenic bacteria.”³⁴

Linalool

Found in lavender, jasmine, rosewood, basil, and thyme⁵⁰, linalool has a “floral scent reminiscent of spring flowers such as Lily of the Valley, but with spicy overtones.”³⁴

Benefits associated with Linalool³⁴:

• Anxiolytic (anti-anxiety, reduces stress and anxiety)
• Anticonvulsant
• Antimicrobial⁶⁵
• Calming
• Effective topical treatment for acne and burns, reduces scarring
• Sedative

Researchers are currently investigating linalool for its potential role in treating a variety of different cancers³⁴.

Myrcene (β-Myrcene, Beta-Myrcene)

Commonly found in fragrant plants, including basil, bay laurel leaves, hops, herbs, lemongrass mangoes, and thyme⁵⁰, myrcene (β-Myrcene, Beta-Myrcene) has an earthy aroma with “hops, tropical, mango, and minty nuances”³⁴.

β-Myrcene is the most prevalent terpene in throughout the majority of currently available cannabis strains³⁴. It is also widely used throughout the perfume industry.

Benefits associated with β-Myrcene^34,50:

• Analgesic
• Anticarcinogenic
• Antidepressant
• Anti-inflammatory
• Antimicrobial
• Antioxidant
• Antiseptic (antiseptic means β-Myrcene stops or slows the growth of microorganisms, reducing the risk of disease or infection⁶⁷)
• Affects cell permeability, allowing THC to reach brain cells and increase the absorption of other terpenes
• Muscle relaxant
• Prevents liver cancer
• Sedative

“Myrcene is a synergist of THC: A combination of the two molecules creates a stronger experience than THC alone… This terpene contributes strongly to the infamous ‘couch-lock’ experience.”³⁴

Trans-nerolidol

Found in ginger, jasmine, tea tree oil, and yellow grass⁵⁰, Trans-nerolidol has a “mild, delicate odor that is floral, apple, rose, green, and citrus-like with woody, waxy nuances. Its flavor has been described as green, floral, and woody with fruity-citrus and melon nuances.”³⁴

Benefits associated with Trans-nerolidol^34,68:

• Antifungal
• Antileishmaniasis (Leishmaniasis is a parasitic disease found in parts of the tropics, subtropics, and southern Europe⁶⁹. The infection is caused by Leishmania parasites, which are spread through bites from infected sandflies)
• Antimicrobial
• Antiparasitic
• Sedative

Alpha-Pinene (α-Pinene) & Beta-Pinene (β-Pinene)

Commonly found in pine trees, eucalyptus, rosemary, sage, and turpentine, alpha-pinene (α-pinene) has an indisputable pine tree scent³⁴. Similarly, β-pinene (beta-pinene) has a “woody-green pine-like smell,” and it is one of the most abundant compounds released by forest trees.

α-pinene and β-pinene are each one of the two isomers of pinene and share similar properties. Isomers are two molecules with a similar formula but different structure⁷⁰. Thus, α-pinene and β-pinene have the same number of atoms for each element, but their atomic arrangement is different.

Benefits associated with Alpha-Pinene (α-Pinene) and Beta-Pinene (β-Pinene)^34,71:

• Analgesic
• Antibiotic resistance modulation (useful for treating antibiotic resistant bacteria, such as MRSA)
• Anticoagulant (blood thinners; reduces blood clotting⁵²)
• Anti-inflammatory
• Anti-malarial
• Antimicrobial
• Antioxidant
• Antileishmaniasis (Leishmaniasis is a parasitic disease found in parts of the tropics, subtropics, and southern Europe⁶⁹. The infection is caused by Leishmania parasites, which are spread through bites from infected sandflies)
• Bronchodilator (Useful for treating asthma⁵⁰)
• Promotes alertness, focus, and memory retention

“Largely due to the presence of pinene, rosemary and sage are both considered ‘memory plants.’ Concoctions made from their leaves have been used for thousands of years in traditional medicine to retain and restore memory… α-Pinene has inhibited acetylcholinesterase suggesting utility in the clinical treatment of Alzheimer’s disease.”³⁴

Ocimene

Found in basil, bergamot, kumquats, lavender, mangoes, orchids, and peppers, ocimene has a “sweet, floral, and herbaceous aromatic profile.”⁷²

Benefits associated with Ocimene^34,72:

• Anti-inflammatory
• Antioxidant

“Further research indicates that ocimene may help treat symptoms of diabetes by inhibiting the proliferation of key enzymes connected to type 2 diabetes and hypertension.”

Hypertension is high blood pressure (whereas hypotension is low-blood pressure)⁷³.

Alpha-Terpinene (α-Terpinene), Beta-Terpinene (β-Terpinene), & Gamma-Terpinene (γ-Terpinene)

Found in allspice, cardamom, citrus, eucalyptus, juniper, marjoram, and tea tree oil⁵⁰, alpha-terpinene (α-terpinene) has a “refreshing, lemony-citrus aroma.”³⁴ It is one of three isomers of terpinene, with β-terpinene and γ-terpinene serving as the other two isomers⁷⁴.

Considering that α-terpinene, β-terpinene, and γ-terpinene are isomers, it is likely that they share similar benefits.

Benefits associated with Alpha-Terpinene (α-Terpinene), Beta-Terpinene (β-Terpinene), and Gamma-Terpinene (γ-Terpinene)^34,74

• Anti-inflammatory
• Antimicrobial
• Antioxidant
• Antiproliferative

Tea tree oil — which contains terpinene — has historically been used as an antibacterial, antifungal, and antiseptic agent for centuries. Therefore, these properties may be due to terpinene (or another terpinene)³⁴. However, further testing on isolated terpinene to evaluate its standalone antibacterial, antifungal, and antiseptic properties is needed.

Terpineol

Found in eucalyptus sap, lilacs, lime blossoms, pine trees, and other plants⁵⁰, terpineol has a floral, fruity scent known for its ability to “relax consumers.”^34,76 Terpineol is most commonly found in strains that are high in pinene, which tends to overpower the scent of terpineol⁷⁶.

Benefits associated with Terpineol^34,76:

• Antibiotic
• Anti-inflammatory
• Anti-malarial
• Antioxidant
• Anti-tumor
• Anxiolytic (anti-anxiety, stress relieving)
• Sedative (Terpineol may contribute to the ‘couch-lock’ effect associated with some strains of cannabis)

Terpinolene

Found in apples, cumin, lilacs, nutmeg, and tea tree, terpinolene has a fresh, woody, sweet, and piney aroma with a hint of citrus^34,77. “Its flavor is sweet, woody, terpy, lemon and lime-like with a slight herbal and floral nuance.”³⁴

“Terpinolene is a lurker. It’s found in plenty of cannabis strains, but it’s usually present only in small amounts. It may, in fact, be the least-common common terpene — often among a strain’s cast of characters, but rarely in a leading role.”⁷⁷

Benefits associated with Terpinolene⁷⁷:

• Antibacterial
• Antifungal
• Repels pests including mosquitoes and weevils

Current research is investigating terpinolene’s potential to reduce the risk of heart disease as well as terpinolene’s potential to inhibit cancer cell growth.

“[Terpinolene’s] use in fragrance in the USA alone exceeds 50,000 lbs/year. Terpinolene is used in soap, detergent, creams, lotions, and perfumes.”³⁴

Valencene

Most commonly found in Valencia oranges, Valencene has a sweet, citrusy aroma and flavor⁷⁶.

Benefits associated with Valencene^76,78:

• Anti-allergic (preventing allergic responses⁷⁹)
• Anti-inflammatory
• Bronchodilator
• Insectifungal (killing insects and fungi)
• May protect skin from sun-related/UV damage⁸⁰

Research on Valencene is still in its infancy. It’s likely there’s still plenty left to uncover about this terpene.

The Bioavailability of Terpenes

How terpenes exert their therapeutic effects depends on the route of administration (i.e. were they inhaled through a vapor product? Consumed in an edible? Applied topically in a lotion?)⁹⁸.

The term “bioavailability” refers to the rate and fraction of the initial dose of a substance that reaches its intended biological target¹⁰⁰. In this case, the “bioavailability” of terpenes refers to how much of the terpene is actually absorbed and utilized by the body.

Below, we have broken down the mechanisms based on how terpenes may be consumed.

Inhalation

When vaping or smoking terpenes, they’re quickly absorbed by your lungs and enter directly into your bloodstream⁹⁸. The bioavailability range of the terpenes α-pinene (alpha-pinene), camphor, and menthol is 54 to 76 percent. According to the National Cannabis Industry Association, this is relatively high when compared to their oral bioavailability.

Ingestion

Various factors affect the bioavailability of terpenes, such as your pH balance and the actions of your digestive enzymes⁹⁸. According to the NCIA, terpenes are absorbed by the gastrointestinal tract and become bioavailable within 30 minutes of first consuming them. Terpenes reach their peak bioavailability within two to four hours of ingestion.

Topical Application

Terpenes have many dermatological benefits, such as their anti-inflammatory, anti-acne, and wound-healing properties⁹⁸. According to the NCIA, terpenes “easily penetrate the skin and enhance transdermal delivery.” Furthermore, terpenes may potentially aid in the transdermal delivery of cannabinoids.

The bioavailability of terpenes delivered transdermally ranges from three to 12 percent, depending on the type of terpene it is and the topical formulation. Terpenes reach their maximum plasma levels within 10 minutes of topical application.

Safety Guidelines & Limits for Added Terpenes

The recommended safety guidelines and limits for added terpenes vary depending on the route of administration, as well⁹⁸.

Inhalation Safety Guidelines & Terpene Limits

As a rule of thumb, the NCIA recommends the concentration of terpenes shouldn’t exceed more than 10 percent in the final product⁹⁸. For reference, the natural ratios of terpenes in cannabis range from one to five percent.

When vaporizing terpenes, it’s important it is done in a device with an adjustable temperature setting. Using a lower temperature to vaporize terpenes prevents “unnecessary heat-derived toxin production” from exposure to higher temperatures.

Furthermore, terpenes are natural compounds that should be used within the intended expiration date on the product’s packaging. Laboratory testing is essential to ensure the quality, safety, and stability of the product.

The terpene limits suggested by the NCIA are based on the ANEC Position Paper on e-cigarettes and e-liquids. It’s important to note the average e-cigarette consumer takes 500 “puffs” per day, while the average cannabis consumer takes nine puffs per day. Thus, the potential safe limits could be higher than outlined below, since cannabis consumers tend to use their cartridges significantly fewer times per day than the average e-cigarette consumer.

• α-Terpineol (Alpha-Terpineol) limit per e-liquid: 1.1%
• β-Pinene (Beta-Pinene) limit per e-liquid: 0.7%
• Carvone limit per e-liquid: 0.14%
• Geranyl Acetate limit per e-liquid: 7.4%
• Linalool limit per e-liquid: 0.34%
• Menthol limit per e-liquid: 7.8%

Ingestion Safety Guidelines & Terpene Limits

Terpenes are common flavor additives in food products⁹⁸. However, the exact dosage for therapeutic benefits in edible products is not yet fully understood and warrants further research. It’s also vital to ensure terpenes that are added to edible cannabis products are food-grade terpenes backed by a certificate of analysis to verify they’re safe to ingest.

The NCIA bases its safe terpene limits on the Food and Extract Manufacturers of the United States’ program. FEMA’s program relies on the GRAS (“generally recognized as safe”¹⁰¹) concept to determine the safety of flavoring substances. The program has developed different safety recommendations for added terpenes depending on the type of consumable product and measures the terpenes added by their parts per million (ppm) in the product.

Parts per million can also be thought of as how many milligrams per liter (mg/L), or as a percentage where 10,000 mg = 1%.

• Non-Alcoholic Beverages:
  • Lime Terpenes (Average Maximum PPM): 750
  • Orange Terpenes (Average Maximum PPM): 1,550
  • Grapefruit Terpenes (Average Maximum PPM): 500
  • Limonene (Average Maximum PPM): 31
  • Myrcene (Average Maximum PPM): 4.4
  • Linalool (Average Maximum PPM): 7
• Alcoholic Beverages:
  • Lime Terpenes (Average Maximum PPM): 1,000
  • Orange Terpenes (Average Maximum PPM): 1,000
  • Grapefruit Terpenes (Average Maximum PPM): 1,000
  • Limonene (Average Maximum PPM): N/A
  • Myrcene (Average Maximum PPM): N/A
  • Linalool (Average Maximum PPM): 50
• Chewing Gum:
  • Lime Terpenes (Average Maximum PPM): 20,000
  • Orange Terpenes (Average Maximum PPM): 20,000
  • Grapefruit Terpenes (Average Maximum PPM): 20,000
  • Limonene (Average Maximum PPM): 2,300
  • Myrcene (Average Maximum PPM): N/A
  • Linalool (Average Maximum PPM): 200
• Hard Candy:
  • Lime Terpenes (Average Maximum PPM): 5,000
  • Orange Terpenes (Average Maximum PPM): 5,000
  • Grapefruit Terpenes (Average Maximum PPM): 5,000
  • Limonene (Average Maximum PPM): 49
  • Myrcene (Average Maximum PPM): 13
  • Linalool (Average Maximum PPM): 400
• Soft Candy:
  • Lime Terpenes (Average Maximum PPM): 5,000
  • Orange Terpenes (Average Maximum PPM): 5,000
  • Grapefruit Terpenes (Average Maximum PPM): 5,000
  • Limonene (Average Maximum PPM): N/A
  • Myrcene (Average Maximum PPM): N/A
  • Linalool (Average Maximum PPM): 10

The NCIA also cites safety recommendations from the European Chemical Agency, which bases the safety of ingested terpenes on the “Daily No Effect Level” (DNEL). The DNEL is calculated based on the milligrams of terpenes consumed in proportion to an individual’s body weight in kilograms.

• α-Terpineol (Alpha-Terpineol) DNEL: “No hazard identified”
• β-Pinene (Beta-Pinene) DNEL: 0.3mg/kg bw
• Carvone DNEL: 69.4μg/kg bw
• Geranyl Acetate DNEL: 8.9mg/kg bw
• Linalool DNEL: 0.2mg/kg bw
• Menthol DNEL: 4.7 mg/kg bw

Topical Safety Guidelines & Terpene Limits

Although terpenes contain many known skin benefits, some are also dermal irritants⁹⁸. The intensity of the irritation depends on how concentrated the terpene is, so these allergenic terpenes must be diluted. Oxidization also increases the risk of causing a skin reaction, as the oxidized forms of terpenes are more reactive.

Below is the list of allergenic terpenes highlighted by the NCIA. Since these terpenes are considered common allergens, the packaging should clearly state the presence of these terpenes if it’s potentially higher than 0.01% in “rinse-off” products (shower & bath gels) or 0.0001% in “leave-on” products (massage oils, body oils, and creams).

• Citral
• Citronellol
• Eugenol
• Farnesol
• Geraniol
• Isoeugenol
• D-Limonene
• Linalool

The NCIA’s terpene concentration limits for topical products are based on the recommendations made by the International Fragrance Association. The limits vary depending on the type of topical product it is and which terpene it is.

• α-Bisabolol (Alpha-Bisabolol):
  • Lip Products: 0.42%
  • Body Lotions, Creams, & Oils: 2.40%
  • Hand Sanitizers & Hand Creams: 0.60%
  • Body Washes: 4.60%
• Citral:
  • Lip Products: 0.11%
  • Body Lotions, Creams, & Oils: 0.60%
  • Hand Sanitizers & Hand Creams: 0.15%
  • Body Washes: 1.2%
• Citronellol:
  • Lip Products: 2.20%
  • Body Lotions, Creams, & Oils: 12.00%
  • Hand Sanitizers & Hand Creams: 3.20%
  • Body Washes: 24.0%
• Eugenol:
  • Lip Products: 0.45%
  • Body Lotions, Creams, & Oils: 2.50%
  • Hand Sanitizers & Hand Creams: 0.64%
  • Body Washes: 4.90%
• Farnesol:
  • Lip Products: 0.21%
  • Body Lotions, Creams, & Oils: 1.20%
  • Hand Sanitizers & Hand Creams: 0.29%
  • Body Washes: 2.30%
• Geraniol:
  • Lip Products: 0.85%
  • Bod Lotions, Creams, & Oils: 4.70%
  • Hand Sanitizers & Hand Creams: 1.20%
  • Body Washes: 9.20%

To verify the safety of terpene-infused topical products, the NCIA recommends creating sample products with an infusion of 0.5% to 5% terpenes in petroleum jelly. Patch testing these formulations can help identify potential skin reactions so the formula may be adjusted.

Key Takeaways

Terpenes are aromatic compounds found in many plants, including cannabis^48,49. They are bioactive, which means they have observable effects on the body.

Current research on the entourage effect supports the theory that terpenes may alter how phytocannabinoids are processed and used throughout the body. Similar research has also demonstrated that terpenes offer unique benefits that cause each strain of cannabis to have different medicinal properties⁴⁸.

While there is an array of different terpenes found throughout nature, only a select few have been identified and researched. Many of the terpenes are in critical need of more research to better understand their role in altering/enhancing the effects of cannabis.

It is also worth noting the terpene profile and concentrations of cannabis will vary depending on how it was processed — just as the cannabinoid ratios will vary depending on how the cannabis was processed, as well^48,1. Some cannabis products contain added terpenes^98,99. These are either terpenes that have been “added back” to make up for any that were lost during the extraction process, or terpenes that have been added to enhance the flavor or therapeutic effects of the products. The NCIA has various safety guidelines and recommended limits for added terpenes in inhalable, ingestible, and topical cannabis products.

Just like cannabinoids, terpenes possess a variety of therapeutic properties. Some terpenes are anti-inflammatory, analgesic, anti-aging, antibacterial, anticancer, antidepressant, antifungal, anxiolytic, and sleep-promoting, to name a few of their medicinal benefits.

Similarly, the bioavailability of terpenes varies depending on how the product is administered. Inhaled terpenes have the highest range of bioavailability, which is between 54 and 76 percent.

References

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2. Morales, P., Hurst, D. P., & Reggio, P. H. (2017). Molecular Targets of the Phytocannabinoids: A Complex Picture. Progress in the Chemistry of Organic Natural Products, 103–131. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-45541-9_4
3. WeedMaps. (n.d.). What is a Phytocannabinoid? | Phytocannabinoid Definition by Weedmaps. https://weedmaps.com/learn/dictionary/phytocannabinoid/
4. Di Marzo, V., & Piscitelli, F. (2015). The Endocannabinoid System and its Modulation by Phytocannabinoids. Neurotherapeutics, 12(4), 692–698. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13311-015-0374-6
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